Qualitative Research Proposal Essay Example for Free

Qualitative Research Proposal Essay For my field research observation site I chose the flea market (la pulga) located in Alamo, Texas. I chose this specific site because in our Mexican American culture families tend to go there to buy cheap merchandise. Although many people go there many of the things they buy there can or is related to crime. I chose this flea market because it is close to home and there are usually a high number of people there during the weekends. There were a number of issues with this place, but there were two who stood out above the rest. The main points were: do people realize that by buying certain objects they are committing a crime, and also is law enforcement doing anything to prevent these types of crimes from happening. There are mainly two types of individuals who go to these places. The first types of people who go to these places are mainly Mexican American. There is not one age group that stands out above the rest since Mexican American groups. Mexican American individuals tend to visit these places as a family. The second types of people are mainly Winter Texans. A rough estimate from my observation would be that Winter Texas are 30% middle aged (45-60), and 70% elderly. Winter Texans mainly go as couples and are usually there just pass time; Mexican Americans on the other hand are there because they want to buy cheap objects. Research Question or Topic My research questions are: 1. Are people well informed that purchasing pirated DVDs is a crime? 2. What is law enforcement doing to prevent these crimes from happening? Literature Review Bibliography One of the academic journals I found out to be possibly the most interesting out of my whole research was the one dealing with the piracy of CDs/DVDs. This journal does not only talk about the piracy of media, but also about the replicator, the user, and the technology used. It explains how the replicator uses computer software to copy the media and how it gets to the market from there. It talks about the types of users who buy the product and it also talks about the technology being enforced to make it harder and in some cases impossible for the replicator to create a copy of the media. Even though this journal is out there it still seems that some people are unaware of the consequences with the replication of this media, and also the problem it can cause in our society. One of the main points the article describes is whether copy-protection work or not. The answer to this question is that there is copy protection on DVDs which makes it harder for anyone to copy media, but since pirates (replicators) don’t play by the rules there are still some ways to bypass the copy-protection. Research done in this journal- 1. Copyright 2. Product Counterfeiting 3. Manufacturing Processes 4. Anti-counterfeiting Measures 5. Replicators 6. Users of the Pirated DVDs The second article I found is called Factor that Influence the Piracy of DVD/VCD Motion Pictures. Basically the title says what the article is about. It explain some of the major factors that cause people to burn these DVDs, and factors that cause people to buy them. The article says that people tend to buy these DVDs because of the cost benefit. This means that people are getting DVDs way cheaper than if you were to go and buy the real one at an actual store. The author’s findings are also used to support the social norms used to make an effort to stop the piracy of this media. Research done in this article- 1. Copyright Infringement 2. Pirated Video Recordings 3. Piracy 4. Empirical Research 5. Motion Picture Industry 6. Bootlegging and Methodology aspects. The last article I read was talking about the structure about an American flea market. There are differences between flea markets up North and flea markets here in the valley. One of the most obvious differences would be the people that go to the flea markets. The article talks about the types of people that go to the flea market. It talks about the economic effect a flea market has on society. It talks about the behaviors of the buyers and sellers in a flea market. The research in this article was done by surveys across different flea markets and on the consumers in those flea markets. Not only were these studies done on U. S. flea markets they were also done on different countries for example Mexico. Research done in this article – 1. Flea Markets 2. Marketing 3. Case Studies 4. Economic Activity 5. Consumer Behavior 6. Business Cycle 7. Sociocultural Factors My Three Sources Block, D. (1997), CD? DVD/piracy:the replicator, the user, and the technology. Emedia Professional, 10, 92. Chih-Chein, W. (2005). Factors that Influence the Piracy of DVD/VCD Motion Pictures. Journal Of American Academy Of Business, Cambridge, 6(1), 231-237. Sherry Jr. , J. F. (1990). A Sociocultural Analysis of a Midwestern American Flea Market. Journal Of Consumer Research, 17(1), 13-30 Research Design Step 1 Prepare myself by doing some background research on the site I am preparing to observe. Be prepared for anything that may come my way, and be prepared for opportunities that may arise while doing my research. I need to go organized and possibly focus on one point of interest. Need to prepare my looking and listing skills since they are essential for any field researcher. Go prepare to do constant writing since it is one of the most useful way of recording data. Step 2. Gain access to enter the observation site, in my case I don’t think it is a problem since it is open to the public. Other sites have different important sections but in a flea market everything is together so I just have to worry about getting inside. I need to get involved in normal activities to make myself unnoticeable and look like an everyday customer. Perhaps buy merchandise or other things regular customers do. Step 3 By looking as a customer I can build trust with the people working in this area, and this way they can go on doing their job like they normally do, and this can help me observe them in their normal working routine. Step 4 While walking around the site I can record anything I find to be deviant or criminal, in my case I found the distribution of illegal DVD copies. I’ll observe from afar, learn and record anything else. I have to make my findings very detailed this way I don’t miss anything of importance that can later help me answer my question, and this way I won’t have to return for small doubts I may have. Record any conversations I may have had with any of the people there. Step 5. Finally after I am done gathering data I just exit the observation site I just exit the site and start compiling my data. Step 6 After putting my data and getting a better understanding of my observation site. With a better understanding of what happens in the site I will be able to put together a detailed survey or interview questions. Of course the survey or interview will be anonymous and have to make sure the customer knows this. You need to make the customer know that the research is anonymous because if not the person might put false data and the data will be inaccurate. Step 7 After conducting all my research I can put together a conclusion and determine what it means. I’ll ask myself questions for example did I find the answer my questions, was my hypothesis correct, and is there more research to be done. The conclusion has to be precise this way if a person is interested in the same topic they will have all the information they need. Step 8 This is how will conduct my research and hopefully get a good grade on this assignment, if not I will need some research on how I can do better.

Female Education And A Nations Development Education Essay

Female Education And A Nations Development Education Essay Female education is essential for the development of a nation. This is mainly because women are involved in all sorts of activities both at a regional level and at the community level such as child bearing and household chores etc. Hence it is very important to provide quality education to women to help them contribute to the development of the nation in a meaningful way. Various studies show that womens education is very important in order to improve the socio-economic position of their families. It is the inequality in access to education for female students that prevents them from obtaining the essential education necessary for their well being and their familys development. The traditional thinking of many societies that women are just supposed to do the household work has contributed largely to the low levels of female education around the globe. It is seen however that the societies that have focused on providing better education to women have better indicators of social welfar e. These societies for example have lower infant mortality rate apart from that the issue of lower fertility rates, also increased life expectancy, improved nutrition and most importantly better opportunities for their children. Other factors such as residential status and parents concern and attitude towards female students also plays an important role in improving the educational status of female students in any society. Parents level of education also has a direct impact on their daughters education. The link between the mother and daughter is the strongest. Poverty, parents professional status, lack of skilled teachers and lack of incentives such as scholarships for women, deprivation of parental care and proper educational policies affect the standard of female education. (I.A. Adetunde, 2008) Thus Womens education is a very important issue. Women who are educated can make profound choices in the matter of health, nutrition and basic upbringing of a child. There is great impact on infant mortality health, fertility, productivity and a childs academic performance if women are educated. On 8th March 2004 Laura Bush (the first lady at that time) said on the womens day that when a women is denied education youve denied half of the population the chance to succeed and the chance to contribute to a society and to a culture. she also said that Women are more likely to be able to make informed choice so that their children dont suffer from malnutrition or other diseases and ensure that their children can receive best health care. In Every culture, the responsibility of the upbringing and nourishing of a child lies in the hands of the mother. Due to this responsibility the womens education has gained quite an importance globally. Studies reveal that womens education has strong implications on every aspect of a childs upbringing and one of them is the childs academic performance. Children of educated mothers are seen to have better academic performance as compared to children of less or uneducated mothers. (Tahir Andrabi, Jishnu Das, Asim Ijaz Khwaja: March 2009) Educated mothers can help their children throughout their life, but most importantly they can help their children in their early days of education. They try to indulge their children in more productive educational activities apart from what they study at school. This enhances the childs educational capabilities and helps them achieve success. According to a study an additional year of post compulsory schooling of a mother has a positive impact on their childs academic performance i.e. mothers who stay in full time education beyond the minimum school leaving age are more likely to demonstrate positive educational attitudes and behaviours such as reading to their children. (Leon Feinstein and Ricardo Sabates: January 2008) Higher education is consistently associated with a higher likelihood of marriage, whereas less education is associated with a higher likelihood of divorce (Jennifer March Augustine, 2010). Thus educated mothers tend to have more stable relationships and family status. This in turn affects their childrens academic performance. Children have a healthy environment to live in and thus can concentrate more on their studies and perform well. The flow of resources such as time, money and socio-emotional support etc from the mother to children is affected by this relationship status. (Jennifer March Augustine, 2010). Marital and fertility patterns have been seen to change over the last few decades. Women who are more educated (college graduates) have been the least likely to get married and have children historically. Today however, the situation is changing and this marriage gap is eroding The returns to marriage have changed. College educated women marry later, do not view marriage as a financial security, have fewer children and declining divorce rates since 1970s as compared to women without college degrees. These factors help women to have a better and a healthier family life which in turn helps them in their Childs upbringing. The children of more educated women thus can focus more on their studies as they have a healthier environment to study in and so they perform well (Adam Isen Feb. 2010). A Mothers education influences a child mostly during the childs early years of education (primary education). Educated mothers make their children spend more time in outdoor activities, reading etc and are concerned about their childs progress at school and have expectations of the childs future educational achievements .This encourages the child to focus more on his studies and enhances his capabilities. (Leon Feinstein and Ricardo Sabates: January 2008). Moreover there are substantial intergenerational returns to education. An additional year of a mothers schooling makes a positive contribution to the Childs academic performance. It increases the Childs performance on a standardized math test by almost 0.1 of a standard deviation and reduces the incidence of behavioural problems especially for children aged 7-8.There are various channels that transmit the effect of maternal education to the child, including parental investments throughout different stages of a Childs life and family environment. Educated women tend to have a healthier home environment with better and more stable family lives which then contribute to their Childs educational excellence. Maternal education also reduces grade repetition and the incidence of behavioural problems. Educated mothers basically avoid early childbearing, are more likely to be married to educated men and tend to have higher incomes. Thus they can contribute in several ways to their Childs educa tion for example through books, involving them in extracurricular activities or buying them a computer. This additional investment pays off in the form of improved child performance in all academic aspects of his life. Even if educated mothers work more they do not neglect their children as they are aware of the negative consequences of doing so (Pedro Carneiro, Sep 2007). Also educated mothers tend to spend more time with their children and their children tend to spend more time studying outside school thus there is a strong impact of maternal education on their childs test scores.( Tahir Andrabi, Jishnu Das and Asim Ijaz Khwaja, March 2009). Educated mothers bring in more encouragement and ability for their children to succeed in life. Children of educated mothers are usually more confident, free from anxieties, ambitious, self reliant and more focused. It is seen that an increase in mothers education leads to an increase in the students achievement at school .Those mothers who stayed on in education rather than just having the basic primary education can help their children in a better way. A direct relationship is seen between a mothers education level and their childs academic performance. (Azra Parveen Muhammad Tayyab Alam 2008). Traditionally it has been thought that an increase in investment in womens schooling pays off in the form of increased schooling of the next generation. Some authors have a different view however. According to them the positive relationship between mother-child schooling can not entirely be considered true as it is somewhat biased upward due to the correlations between schooling and assortative mating and heritable ability. The other studies, they argue have not considered these factors and thus conclude showing a positive relationship between mother-child schooling and education. An increase in the schooling of women does not have beneficial effects in terms of the schooling of children (Jere R. Behrman and Mark R. Rosenzweig, 2002). Increases maternal schooling and education instead makes the mothers concentrate less on their homes, family and specifically their children. It is emphasized that the time of the women is an essential factor in childbearing and thus women should concen trate more on their families and not on education. This, they argue will lead to a better academic future for their child. Better schooling of the mother however can improve a Childs health in certain situations. Basically the result of investing in womens schooling requires attention to the role played by schooling in the labor and marriage market for women. (Jere R. Behrman and Mark R. Rosenzweig, 2002) Literacy status of mothers also strongly affects the health and nutritional state of their children thus literate mothers can take better care of their childs health and protect them against several diseases. With illiterate mothers however there are chances of children developing malnutrition especially children less than three years of age who are underweight. Malnutrition negatively affects the childs academic performance. An educated mother takes better care of their Childs health and thus their child is more successful throughout his life. Although there is a positive correlation between a mothers education and their Childs health some studies reveal that there is hardly any significant effect of a mothers education on Childs health if mothers have got only primary education. Further it has been found that the first three years of mothers education has no impact on the Childs health. The impact is seen after the first three years and the result is not linear in education. After 4 to 6 years of education, the magnitude of this effect becomes small but then again picks up after 1 years of education. (Meherun Ahmed May 2009). Nonetheless, some scholars do not completely support the correlation that there is a strong causal relationship between maternal education and child health. According to them this link has hardly been analyzed properly using the most appropriate statistical models. They are using the community-level fixed-effects models and thus argue maternal education may be a proxy for the socioeconomic status of the household as well as for characteristics of the community of residence. Therefore according to them there is a possibility that the positive relationship between maternal education and child health may be untrue. By controlling for a few socioeconomic variables the maternal education/child health link is seen to be weak. Three markers of child health namely infant mortality, immunization status and childrens height-for-age have been examined. Maternal education has a significant impact on height-for-age and infant mortality in only a few countries around the world. However on the othe r hand maternal education has a strong positive effect on childrens immunization status in about half of the countries of the world even after implementing the community and individual level controls. (SONALDE DESAI AND SOUMYA ALVA, 1998) According to another study, educated parents tend to have educated children. The author focused on studying whether the intergenerational transmission of human capital is more behavioural (nurture) or innate (nature). The data collected helped in separating genetic from environmental parental influences. Results of the analysis emphasised that the nurture component is more important for both parents (mother and father).The education of the most educated female adult in a household has a strong positive effect on the schooling of the children in that household. This holds true for a Childs biological parents and for the parents of an adopted child. It can be said that the more the mother is educated, the better the Childs academic performance. When boys and girls are analysed separately it is seen that if the nurture component is isolated, the fathers education matters more for boys whereas a mothers education matters more for girls. The positive effects of the education of the adopti ve parents are only seen for children related to the head of their new households (Damien de Walque, 2005). Research Project Literature Review By Asna Shahid Section G 07U0469 Submitted to Anam Tahir Lahore School of Economics

OSI reference model

OSI reference model HISTORY: OSI reference model is advanced teaching of network. As there was a need of common model of protocol layers, this concept promoted the idea and defined about interoperability between network devices and software. Networking with protocol standards such as SNA and Decnet are completely vendor-developed and proprietary which are prior to OSI concept. Industries worked out to sort out such complications, and have introduced a new concept named OSI which is attempting to get everyone to agree to common network standards to provide multi-vendor interoperability. Many devices were unable to communicate with other protocols directly because of lack of common protocols. It was common for large networks to support multiple network suites. Database design and distributed database design were the interest of canepas group in the early and middle 70s. It was clear in the mid 70s that standard distributed communications architecture would be required to support database machines, distributed acce ss, and the like. For development of such standardized database systems some of the groups have studied the existing solutions, including IBMs system network architecture (SNA), so the work on protocols is done for ARPANET, and some concepts of presentation services. In spite of these defaults which lead to the development of a seven layer architecture known internally as the distributed systems architecture (DSA) in 1977. Meanwhile, in 1977 International Organization for Standardization has got a proposal that a standard architecture was needed to define the communications infrastructure for distributed processing by British Standards Institute. Thus, subcommittee on Open System Interconnection was formed by ISO [Technical Committee 97, Subcommittee 16]. The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) was charged to develop proposals in advance of the first meeting of the subcommittee. INTRODUCTION:- Although the topic of OSI can seem boring and academic, actually it is a very useful way to learn more about networking. OSI offers a good starting point for understanding the differences between repeaters, switches, and routers, for example. The model also can help one better understand network protocols. The main idea in OSI is the process of communication between the end points of a two telecommunication network, this can be divided into layers, which can be added within its layers of its own set of special, related functions. The OSI model (and networking models developed by other organizations) attempts to define rules that cover both the generalities and specifics of networks. OSI model was not a network standard, but it was used as guidelines for development of network standards. It was become so important that almost all major networks standards in use today conform entirely to its seven layers. The relationship between OSI model and internet protocol stack, as it is known that the new technologies and developments are emerged based on networks. These networks comprise of protocols and the entire protocol stack. Internet protocol stack is based on OSI model. [1] OSI MODEL:- The modern day networking process is understood by layering. OSI model consists of seven layers. They are 1. Application Layer (7th Layer) 2. Presentation Layer (6th Layer) 3. Session Layer (5th Layer) 4. Transport Layer (4th Layer) 5. Network Layer (3rd Layer) 6. Data-link Layer (2nd Layer) 7. Physical Layer (1st Layer) [2] The OSI model defines internetworking in terms of a vertical stack of seven layers. Among, these layer, there are two parts division one is upper layer and the other is lower layer. Upper layer consist of layer 7, 6 and 5 and the lower layer consist of 4, 3, 2 and 1. Among these two layer upper layer deals with the application issues which are generally are implemented only in software. The software that implements network services like encryption and connection management. When we consider deals with the data transport issues and the implement more primitive, hardware functions like routing, addressing and flow control. [3] Upper layer: (Application layer, Presentation layer, Session layer) OSI designates the application, presentation, and session stages of the stack as the upper layers. Software in these layers performs application-specific functions like data formatting, encryption, and connection management. For example: -HTTP, SSL and NFS Lower layer: (Transport layer, Network layer, Physical layer.) Lower layers of the OSI model provide more primitive network-specific functions like routing, addressing, and flow control. For example:- TCP, IP, and Ethernet Application Layer: Describes how real work actually gets done. Ex: this layer would implement file system operations. And also it defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in network. It provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations. â€Å" provides service directly to the user application. Because of the potentially wide variety of application, this layer provide a wealth of services. Among these services are establishing privacy mechanism, authenticating the intended communication partners, and determining if adequate resources are present.† [3] Presentation layer : Describes the syntax of data being transferred. Ex: this layer describes how floating point numbers can be exchanged between hosts with different math formats. Mask the difference of data formats between dissimilar systems. Specifies architecture independent data transfer format. It encodes data; like encrypts and decrypts data, compresses and decompresses data. â€Å" performs data transformation to provide a common interface for user application, including services such as reformatting data compression, and encryption.†[3] Session layer : In general, describes the organization of data sequences larger than the packets handled by lower layers. Ex: this layer describes how request and reply packets are paired in a remote procedure call. It mange user session and dialogues. And also controls establishment and termination of logic between users. Reports upper layer errors. â€Å" establishes, manages and end user connection and manages the interaction between end systems. Services includes such thing as establishing communication as full or half duplex and grouping data†[3] Transport Layer:- In general, describes the quality and nature of the data delivery. Ex: this layer defines if and how retransmissions will be used to ensure data delivery. Manage end-to-end message delivery in network. Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow control mechanisms. Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery â€Å" insulates the three upper layer, 5 through 7, from having deal with the complexities of layer 1 through 3by providing the function necessary to guarantee a reliable network link. Among other function, this layer provides error recovery and flow control between the two end points of the network connections.†[3] Network layer :- In general, describes how a series of exchanges over various data links can deliver data between any two nodes in a network. Ex: this layer defines the addressing and routing structure of the Internet. Network layer function determines how data are transferred between network devices. Routes packets according to unique network device addresses. It provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource depletion. â€Å" Establishes, maintains and terminates network connection . Among other functions, standard define how data routing and relaying are handled†[3] Data link layer: In general, describes the logical organization of data bits transmitted on a particular medium. Ex: this layer defines the framing, addressing and check summing of Ethernet packets. Defines procedures for operating the communication links and frames packets. And also detects and corrects packets transmit errors. â€Å" ensures the reliability of the physical link established at layer 1 . standard defines how data frames are recognized and provide necessary flow control and error handling at the frame level.†[3] Physical layer : In general, describes the physical properties of the various communications media, as well as the electrical properties and interpretation of the exchanged signals. Ex: this layer defines the size of Ethernet coaxial cable, the type of BNC connector used, and the termination method. Physical later defines physical means of sending data network devices and defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics and interfaces between network medium and devices. â€Å" controls transmission of the raw bit stream over transmission medium. Standard for this layer define such parameter as the amount of signal voltage swings, the duration of voltage and so on.†[3] INFLUENCE: The protocol stack or Internet protocol stack also show influence of the OSI model most of the terminology is same, and most of the books present an Internet protocol stack that uses OSI terminology and that includes physical and data link layer. But in 1981 article by john postal, Carl Sunshine and Danny Cohen there is a diagram showing the Internet protocol functioning on top of one of the several Network protocol and it describe such network protocol as being the packet transmission protocol in each individual network. In a article 1983 by Vinton Cerf- often referred to as â€Å" one of the founding father of the internet† and Edward Cain that the layer that IP function is called â€Å"Internetwork layer† and the layer under that is â€Å"Network layer†. We can universally that the layer at which IP function is called the Network Layer and the important layer was called â€Å"Network layer is usually omitted.† [4] TCP/IP: TCP/IP was originally developed as a research experiment. It has become the backbone of thr information superhighway. It provides users with the back bone services used to carry popular services such as the World Wide Wed (www), E-Mail and other. In late 70s as a US Government Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) research development project, the â€Å"ARPANET†. This has grown to provide connection to system world wide, helping bring the information age into reality. TCP/IP is not really a protocol, but a set of protocols a protocol stack, as it is most commonly called. Its name, for example, already refers to two different protocols, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol). There are several other protocols related to TCP/IP like FTP, HTTP, SMTP and UDP just to name a few. The TCP/IP suite can be understood as a set of discrete component with a layered architecture. The transport layer and below of the TCP/IP suite can be viewed in the figure. The link covers the internetwork and transport protocols. The delivery of packets between the adjacent nodes in an internetwork id provided bye the link protocols. This link delivery only implies that delivered information is intact. Internetwork layer is responsible for addressing and routing of packets between source and destination nodes within the network. At the final the transport layer provides full service to transfer information between them.[5] Application layer: Application layer is the communication between programs and transport protocol. Several different protocols works on the Application layer. The familiar protocols HTTP, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, DNS and Telnet. Application layer commucate through Transport layer that to through a port. Ports are numbered and standard applications always use the same port. For example , SMTP protocol always use port 25, and HTTP protocol always use port 89 and FTP protocol always use ports 20 for data transmission and 21 for control.[6] Transport layer:- The layers gets data from the Application layer and divide into several data packets. It is the most uses TCP. After receiving data TCP protocol gets the packets which sent by the Internet layer and make the in an order, because arrives at the destiny in out of order. Transport layer also check if the content of the received packet are intact and reply by giving acknowledge signal to the transmitter , allowing it to know that the packet arrived in an order at the destiny. If there are no acknowledge signal is received it re send the lost packet.[6] Internet layer: IP address is the unique virtual identity on TCP/IP network of each computer. It as charge of adding a header to the data packets received from the Transport layer. Where other control data will, it will add source IP address and target IP address. the physical address assigned to the network card of each computer. This address is written on the network card RO and is call MAC address. Let us suppose A computer want send a data to B computer so the A want to know the B MAC address but in small local area network computer can easily discover each other MAC address, this is an easy task. If there is no any virtual addressing were used we must to know the MAC address of the destination computer, which is not only a hard task but also does not help out packet routing, because it does not use a tree like structure.[6] Network Interface Layer:- The next is the network interface layer, the datagram generated on the upper layer will be sent to the network interface layer if we are sending data, or the Network Interface layer will get data from the network and send it to the Internet layer, if we are receiving data. The Network Interface Layer breaks down the packets from the Internet Layer into frames and then eventually into bits for transmission across the physical network medium. Signalling and network medium standards such as Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X .25, Frame Relay, RS-232, and v.35 are defined in this layer. Network Interface Controller (NIC) Cards, network hubs, repeaters, bridges, and switches operate at this level.[6] TCP/IP and OSI MODEL:- TCP/IP is defined in term of the protocols that constitute it. Most of the critical protocols functions are their lower layer of the OSI Reference MODEL that are layer 2, 3 and 4 which correspond to the network interface that is internet and transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Which includes all important IP at layer 3 and TCP at layer 4 which combine to give TCP/IP the name to it. TCP contains four subsections. The first description are the two TCP/IP protocols that reside at the network layer, layer 2 of the OSI model PPP and SLIP. And the second details a couple of special protocol that reside between layer 2 and 3 ARP and RARP. The third covers the TCP/IP internet layer (i.e) OSI network layer and layer 3 including IP and several other related and support protocol. At the final the fourth describes the TCP/IP transports layer protocols TCP and UDP.[7] The lower layer of the OSI model is the physical layer which responsible for the transmitting information from one place to another on a network. The layer just above the physical layer is the data link layer and in TCP/IP its call has Network interface layer. Its main job is to implement network at local level and interface between the hardware oriented physical layer, and the ore abstract, software oriented function of the network layer and the above it.[8] Effects of Internet:- As a consequence of the development of internet, the internet protocol best effort delivery. But it is considered to be unreliable when it is talked about its service. In other network architectural language it is called as connection-less protocol. Thus it has its contrast implications to so called connecting modes of transmission. This lack of reliability causes many effects. The major problems raised are: Data corruption Lost data packets Duplicate arrival Out-of-order packet delivery Coming to the effects based on IPv4 and IPv6, they are as follows. IETF declared that IPv4 will not be able to accommodate the need for ever increasing amount of IP addresses in the next few years. The increase and expansion of IP addresses are needed to accommodate following. They are used for proliferation of internet devices such as personal computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), wireless devices, and new Internet appliances; the expansion of internet through the world; the increasing applications of internet access; requirements of emerging internet applications. Thus decrease in usage of IPv4 effects all the above mentioned utilizes. The solution for this problem is found from development of IPv6 which enables a mass market and the increased adoption of the internet. IPv4 was in existence and effectively working from almost 20 years. But now all of its approximately four billion of address seems to be getting finished. Because with the tremendous growth of the internet devices and blocks of the ip addresses assigned to various organizations and countries. This fast growth in the number of devices e.g. Mobiles, computers, music players, etc. it looked as if IPv4 addresses would be exhausted in near future. In order to overcome this problem and increasing life for IPv4 certain measures have been taken e.g. network address translation (NAT), classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) and PPP/DHCP. But all of these solutions are temporary and they made networks more complex and difficult for one to understand and implement. Internet Stack Model The Internet Stack Model employs a Internet Protocol Stack or Suite both these words are used interchangeably. This can be defined as the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. As discussed earlier Protocol is a set of rules in a network. The names of the two protocols which employed the Internet Stack Model are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were also the first two networking protocols defined in this standard. A protocol stack (sometimes communications stack) is a particular software implementation of a computer networking protocol suit. In practical implementation, protocol stacks are often divided into three major sections: media, transport, and applications. A particular operating system or platform will often have two well-defined software interfaces: one between the media and transport layers, and one between the transport layers and applications. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.[1] Difference between OSI and TCP/IP:- OSI model is the standard reference model that describes how the protocols should interact with one another. This was invented by the Department of Defense.TCP/IP does map clearly into OSI model, but is so convenient to think in terms of the OSI model when explaining protocols. The major differences are:- The application layer in TCP/IP handles the responsibilities of layers 5, 6 and 7 in the OSI model. The transport layer in TCP/IP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of packets at the transport layer, while the OSI model does. TCP/IP also offers an option called UDP that does not guarantee reliable packet delivery. [9] TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer layers TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains creditability due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a guidance tool The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers. Disadvantages of OSI model: Major disadvantages of OSI model are Bad timing Bad technology Bad implementations Bad Timing: Presently it appears that standard OSI protocols got crushed. It was completed too late, TCP/IP had already taken hold and become the familiar standard for research universities by the time the OSI Model was ready Bad Technology:- Both the models and protocols are flawed. As mentioned about the layers, cause major disadvantage of this model. Working on OSI model which is associated with several definitions and protocols is extraordinarily complex. The reappearance of functions in each layer also cause problem. Some of those functions are addressing, flow control, and error control. Certain important features are placed in every layer. Some times the decisions taken for placing these features are not obvious. In the past the presentation layer had virtual terminal handling which is presently used in application layer. Data security, encryption and network management were also omitted. The criticism given by world is that communication mentality is increasing rapidly. Bad Implementations: Initial implementations made by people were huge ,unwieldy and slow Because of the complexity of the model, the initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and slow. As time is passing the product got betterments, but bad image stuck. [10] everyone who tried to implement it got burned, giving OSI a reputation for poor quality Disadvantages of TCP/IP model: When TCP/IP is compared with IPX there are few drawbacks. IPX is faster compared to TCP/IP. TCP/IP is intricate to set up and manage. The overhead of TCP/IP is higher than that of IPX. The process involved in TCP/IP is long. The entire process is, port numbers are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and they identify the process to which a particular packet is connected to. Port numbers are found in the packet header. [11]. Few more disadvantages of this model are: software used for strict layering is very inefficient. When buffers are provided they leave space for headers which are added by lower layer protocols. [12] Security:- Internet has become a phenomenon. Sharing Files, transferring Files all across the network has caused the users to think about some serious problems that are being raised due to the phenomenon of Internet. Security is another issue that sits at the top of the level as designers and developers both struggle to give out the correct form of measures to be taken to deal with the issue of Network Security. Since the Protocol Stack has got just one layer to really check the authenticity of the packets that pass through the layers and the network. It has allowed the network to become more susceptible to foreign threats. Since, Computers that are connected to each other create a network. These networks are often configured with public Internet Protocol (IP) addresses that is, the devices on the network are visible to devices outside the network. Networks can also be configured as private meaning that devices outside the network cannot see or communicate directly to them. Computers on a public network have the advantage (and disadvantage) that they are completely visible to the Internet. As such, they have no boundaries between themselves and the rest of the Internet community. This advantage oftentimes becomes a distinct disadvantage since this visibility can lead to a computer vulnerability exploit -e.g.: Hacking if the devices on the public network are not properly secured.To plainly counter this strategy the, we employ a private LAN and make the network a private network then the disadvantage of a private network would be that it entails more configuration and administration to maintain usability. At times, not being fully visible on the Internet can cause some difficulty in connecting to certain services, such as streaming audio/video, chat/instant messaging programs, or some secure Web sites. Maintaining most computers on a private network, with only an IDP/IDS and/or Firewall visible to the public Internet helps maintain a highly secure environment for the computers on the private network, while at the same time keeping them connected to the public Internet.[13] Benefits of OSI model:- The OSI Model is a standard and a very useful tool to deal with the problems of networking. The OSI model is also a standard model for networking protocols and distributed application. In the OSI model there are a total of 7 network layers. The layers of OSI provide the levels of abstraction. Each layer performs a different set of functions and the intent was to make each layer as independent as possible from all the others. This guarantees the security to each packet that passes through these layers also, it reduces the complexity of packet routing through each layer thus reducing the threat of congestion in the network. Each layer uses the information from the below layer and provides a service to the layer above in the OSI Model. [14] Conclusion: Even though OSI model has a few limitations it cannot be said that the model is not suitable anymore because talking about the time and the influence of the OSI model on the networking as whole has had a lot of positive causes. Even if we have many new models coming up with different improvements the base model is always the OSI model. What we can take out of the OSI model are mainly the benefits of the OSI model and which even are the major characteristics needed for creating a good model. The OSI Model is perhaps the most imp lest and widely used through the world. Owing to the advantages of this network we are able to reduce the complexity and save time when passing data on a network. Reference:- 1) John Larmouth (1996): Understanding OSI: International Thomson Computer Press, Michigan. USA} 2) Computer networks 3rd edition by ANDREW S. TANENBAUM 3) Standard network layer architecture, By Bradley Mitchell http://compnetworking.about.com/cs/designosimodel/a/osimodel.htm 4)http://www2.rad.com/networks/introductory/layers/main.htm 5) By Douglas Comers http://www.cellsoft.de/telecom/tcpip.htm 6) Author: Gabriel Torres http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/433/1,2,3,4,5,6 7) Charles M. Kozierok .http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_TCPIPLowerLayerInterfaceInternetandTransportProtoc.htm 8) Charles M. Kozierok http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_DataLinkLayerTechnologiesandProtocols.htm http://itprofesionals.blogspot.com/2009/01/what-is-difference-between-osi-model.html 10) Computer Networks Fourth Edition by Andrew S. Tanenbaum 11)www.tech-faq.com/understanding-the-osi-model.shtml www.bookrags.com/wiki/OSI_model 13) Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan (2004). Data Communications and Networking, McGraw-Hill Professional, USA. 14) http://compnetworking.about.com/cs/designosimodel/a/osimodel.htm

Columbus: A Great Discoverer or Villain Essay -- Christopher Columbus

Columbus: A Great Discoverer or Villain A national holiday celebrating achievements of an individual reflects a nation’s appreciation for that person’s deeds. Christopher Columbus’s Day is an official national holiday in the United States of America. However, a careful examination of Columbus’ expeditions and his methods of settlement in the so-called New World should change the nation’s opinion about the necessity of the holiday. In my way of thinking, Columbus’ arrival to the Indies has brought destruction and death. His motives, such as prosperity by means of exploiting the native population, were immoral, and therefore I cannot accept the idea of celebrating Columbus’ Day as a National Holiday.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Columbus is credited with finding the new world, but did he really discover it? In my opinion, it is not possible to discover land that was already there, occupied by native people. When Columbus claimed to be a founder of the new land, he did not take in consideration a very important aspect about the existing civilization, its customs and traditions that were practiced in that area for thousands of years. Blinded by the idea of prosperity, he ignored the moral beliefs and introduced slavery as a compensation of promised numerous amounts of gold to the Spanish sovereigns. Irving Rouse, the author of the book Tainos, states: â€Å"When the crown complained about the lack of income from the colony, Columbus sent a shipload of captives to Spain to be sold as slaves in a desperate attempt to satisfy that complaint† (Rouse p.151). This serves as a perfect example of how low he thought of natives, not taking in consideration their right to live. Having established goldmines throughout the colony, Columbus found it necessary to take advantage of a local population, Tainos, as means of a cheap labor that was needed for work in goldmines. Rouse states: â€Å"When Christopher Columbus returned to Hispaniola in the summer of 1498, he placated Roldan by authorizing him to seize Indians in the chiefdom of Xaragua and divide them among his followers to use as forced laborers at the goldfields.† (p.153) In his point of view, Taino people deserved to be treated in such a manner, because they constantly rebelled against his rule, not realizing the fact that he was the one that intruded their way of life and caused so many innocent people to suffer. The re... ... point where we stand now. My opponents have tendency to glorify our nation despite the fact that it was build on suffering and extinction of almost entire civilization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, I would like to point out the misinterpretation of Columbus’ actions during the settlement in North America. His arrival to the â€Å"New World† brought along destruction and death. Columbus, after failing to comply with his promise to the King and Queen about increasing their revenues by bringing enormous amounts of gold, introduced the idea of slavery. He also became responsible for extinction of Taino population by forcing them to work in goldmines. Refusing to give up after several attempts to prosper from the â€Å"discovered land† and obvious lack of administrative ability causes even more devastating results described as genocide. After what I have said, the question, whether or not Columbus Day should be a National Holiday in the United States, should not be an issue, since honoring the man who is responsible for elimination of the whole race would be a sin. Such an example of misleading National Holiday left me with a d oubtful feeling about the origin of the rest! Columbus: A Great Discoverer or Villain Essay -- Christopher Columbus Columbus: A Great Discoverer or Villain A national holiday celebrating achievements of an individual reflects a nation’s appreciation for that person’s deeds. Christopher Columbus’s Day is an official national holiday in the United States of America. However, a careful examination of Columbus’ expeditions and his methods of settlement in the so-called New World should change the nation’s opinion about the necessity of the holiday. In my way of thinking, Columbus’ arrival to the Indies has brought destruction and death. His motives, such as prosperity by means of exploiting the native population, were immoral, and therefore I cannot accept the idea of celebrating Columbus’ Day as a National Holiday.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Columbus is credited with finding the new world, but did he really discover it? In my opinion, it is not possible to discover land that was already there, occupied by native people. When Columbus claimed to be a founder of the new land, he did not take in consideration a very important aspect about the existing civilization, its customs and traditions that were practiced in that area for thousands of years. Blinded by the idea of prosperity, he ignored the moral beliefs and introduced slavery as a compensation of promised numerous amounts of gold to the Spanish sovereigns. Irving Rouse, the author of the book Tainos, states: â€Å"When the crown complained about the lack of income from the colony, Columbus sent a shipload of captives to Spain to be sold as slaves in a desperate attempt to satisfy that complaint† (Rouse p.151). This serves as a perfect example of how low he thought of natives, not taking in consideration their right to live. Having established goldmines throughout the colony, Columbus found it necessary to take advantage of a local population, Tainos, as means of a cheap labor that was needed for work in goldmines. Rouse states: â€Å"When Christopher Columbus returned to Hispaniola in the summer of 1498, he placated Roldan by authorizing him to seize Indians in the chiefdom of Xaragua and divide them among his followers to use as forced laborers at the goldfields.† (p.153) In his point of view, Taino people deserved to be treated in such a manner, because they constantly rebelled against his rule, not realizing the fact that he was the one that intruded their way of life and caused so many innocent people to suffer. The re... ... point where we stand now. My opponents have tendency to glorify our nation despite the fact that it was build on suffering and extinction of almost entire civilization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, I would like to point out the misinterpretation of Columbus’ actions during the settlement in North America. His arrival to the â€Å"New World† brought along destruction and death. Columbus, after failing to comply with his promise to the King and Queen about increasing their revenues by bringing enormous amounts of gold, introduced the idea of slavery. He also became responsible for extinction of Taino population by forcing them to work in goldmines. Refusing to give up after several attempts to prosper from the â€Å"discovered land† and obvious lack of administrative ability causes even more devastating results described as genocide. After what I have said, the question, whether or not Columbus Day should be a National Holiday in the United States, should not be an issue, since honoring the man who is responsible for elimination of the whole race would be a sin. Such an example of misleading National Holiday left me with a d oubtful feeling about the origin of the rest!

Characteristics of an Exceptional Manager :: MBA College Admissions Essays

Characteristics of an Exceptional Manager    Describe the characteristics of an exceptional manager. Illustrate how his or her management style has influenced you.    In management consulting, strong analytical skills are valued as much as, if not more than, effective managerial and leadership skills. Unfortunately, for some consultants, these characteristics, at times, are mutually exclusive. I was fortunate, however, to work with [name] on my first major project at [consulting firm]. As my project-manager, he demonstrated a superior combination of leadership, managerial, and communication skills. As a result of our interaction, I learned several important lessons and tools that I used on subsequent projects to improve my effectiveness as a team leader.    To begin, [name] is a true leader who exhibits courage and dedication. A powerful trait rarely found in the realm of business, courage is unique in its ability to unify and motivate people. Moreover, his courage is balanced appropriately with professionalism, strong values, and humility. He is sensitive to others' feelings and recognizes that different people require different types of direction and treatment. Although he often works with diverse and difficult groups, he always seems able to reach consensus and create a shared vision and purpose. Furthermore, he excels at establishing priorities and proactively setting direction.    As an effective manager, [name] also is able to translate his broad direction into discrete, tangible tasks. Since consultants often use difficult or creative analytical approaches, clearly articulating tasks and defining outputs is very important. In addition, he exercises the appropriate level of supervision. Rather than micro-managing his team members, [name] establishes clear accountabilities and expectations and pushes work down to the correct level. As a result, he creates a strong sense of ownership and leverages the skills of his team members. Furthermore, he excels at creating a supportive environment and, when necessary, coaching team members to help them develop new skills.    Finally, [name] is a masterful communicator. He is the only project manager I have had who gave me consistent and constructive feedback, importantly, both positive and negative. Such feedback not only provides clear developmental objectives, but also signals to others that he values their contributions. This type of balanced and open communication quickly forms the foundation of mutual trust and respect. Furthermore, [name] excels in the art of negotiation and debate. He states his points with remarkable precision and is expert at remaining objective and recognizing all sides of an argument.

Betrayal in Hamlet Essay

Betrayal is an act of disloyalty, treachery, violating trust, or breaching confidence. Betrayal is a reoccurring action in the tragic Shakespeare play, Hamlet. Many of the characters deceive one another as well as deny their own feelings, betraying themselves. The secrecy and dishonesty of Shakespeare’s characters show that the actions of humans do not always equate to their appearances in society. The interpersonal and person acts of deception in Hamlet contribute to Shakespeare’s theme of the duel nature of humanity. The most obvious act of betrayal in Hamlet is the murder of King Hamlet by his brother, Claudius. Shortly after the murder, Claudius marries Gertrude, the queen. This could be seen as an added betrayal on Gertrude’s part as well as Claudius’s. They quickly move on from the death of their husband/brother and do not mourn an adequate amount of time. To the public, the newly married couple appears happy and in control. In reality, they are both dealing with the guilt of their immoral actions as well as how their actions have affected Hamlet, who appears to have gone mad following the death of his father. Hamlet’s plot to act as though he is mad causes him to deceive and harm his family members and peers, primarily Ophelia. By denying his love for Ophelia, he leaves her confused and broken hearted. She didn’t understand why the man she loved was now acting as though he was disgusted by her and as if he never cared for her at all. Hamlet’s hasty actions continue when he abruptly murders Polonius, Ophelia’s father. This drives Ophelia into madness. Hamlet truly loves Ophelia, but she will never know because of his deceptive processes. When Hamlet denies his feelings for Ophelia he also betrays himself. He denies himself happiness and causes himself more pain than necessary. He focuses more on how he should appear to the public than on his own feelings. Hamlet also betrays his own feelings when he hesitates to avenge his father’s death. He does not accomplish what he wanted because he overthinks and overanalyzes. If he is wrong about his belief that Claudius killed his father, he would look terrible in the public eye. But in the process to become certain, he misses an opportunity to avenge his father. In conclusion, the characters in Hamlet are deceptive and dishonest. They portray the duel nature of humanity, to appear one way to the public and an entirely different way in private affairs. The characters’ acts of betrayal represent how they act out of the view of society.

Instructional Materials Essay

Social Studies can be defined as a discipline in which we can learn about our world and man’s interaction with his immediate and remote environment. Since Social Studies deals with how men interact with its social and physical environments, how can this interaction of physical and social environment be learnt by the pupils? This can be learnt in the classroom where teaching and learning cannot be conducted by the teacher by merely feeling his pupils with facts and information. There is need to expose the pupils to varied activities. The environment of the child is rich in varied resources. The teacher should utilize these varied resources to promote or stimulate learning among his pupils. Pupils learn positively not by hearing alone but by seeing and doing. How can the teacher stimulate the pupils’ interest? This can be done by the use of instructional materials. Instructional materials are meant to stimulate pupils’ interest in the classroom for meaningful learning to take place. They also afford the pupils the opportunity to make use of more of their senses in the process of learning experiences which are not available in the classroom or school environment, are â€Å"brought† to the classroom for pupils’ attention through the use of instructional materials. For example, the use of the map of the world in teaching some topics in social studies enables the teacher to bring to class these learning experiences. â€Å"This is why instructional materials is said to be aids to learning rather than teaching†. 1.2. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The study was planned mainly to: a. Provide useful information which will contribute in some ways to the improvement of the teaching of social studies in Nigeria primary schools through the effective use of instructional materials. b. Generate data that will help school administrators in their policy formation as regards the use of instructional materials in schools. c. Make available valuable information that will be helpful to educational technologist in their design of appropriate instructional materials for schools. 1.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Nigeria is a potentially a great Nation. But for the Nation to fully attain the enviable position of greatness, her citizens must be dedicated honest, patriotic and hardworking. This is why the federal Government of Nigeria is at present embarking on the project of re-branding the country with the theme, great Nation, good people. Educators have rightly identified social studies as one subject that can help to make these lofty dreams of greatness a reality. Therefore, it cannot be overemphasized on the need to effectively teach this subject through the use of instructional materials. Here has the importance of this study. It will be expected that result of this study may be useful in the following ways: a. Enabling social studies teacher to realize more than ever before the importance of the use of instructional materials while teaching especially social studies. b. Providing more useful information for social studies teacher as regards the various instructional materials they can employ in teaching. c. Providing more useful information for prospective designs of instructional materials on the need to provide suitable instructional materials for use in schools. 1.4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It is the consensus among scholars in Nigerian that social studies is one subject that is crucial to the realization of the Nigeria dream of greatness. This is the reasons why social studies in one of the cone subjects at the primary school and junior school levels. However, it seems the teaching and learning of the subject is hampered by the problem of lack of in adequate use of instructional materials. Therefore, the problem of this research is to look at the problems surrounding the use of instructional materials in the teaching of social studies in primary schools. Specifically, this study has attempted to provide answers to the following research questions. 1.5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. Do primary school teachers use instructional materials while teaching social studies? 2. Are primary school social studies teachers aware of the benefits of using instructional materials in teaching? 3. Does the use of instructional materials in teaching have any impact on pupils’ performance in primary school social studies? 4. Could the non use of instructional materials in the teaching of social studies in primary schools be as a result of their being inadequate? 5. What contribution does the use of instructional materials have on the teaching and learning of social studies? 1.6. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The scope of this research has been limited to some selected primary schools in Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Area of Lagos State. The project is to examine the impact of instructional materials in teaching of social studies in selected primary schools in Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Areas. And also to know how learning can be stimulated in primary schools pupils. The limitation is due to financial and time constraint. 1.7. DEFINITION OF TERMS 1. SOCIAL STUDIES: Social Studies can be defined as a study that equips learners with tools such as attitude, values and skills necessary in solving personal and community related problems. Social Studies is also a study of a man and his environment. It is also the study of many interactions with his physical and social environment. It is a study of how man lives in the society, what he does, how his life is affected by things, people as well as social practices around him. 2. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: These are the resources used to facilitate teaching and learning. 3. TEACHING: This can be defined as the conscious and deliberate efforts by a matured or experienced person to impact knowledge, information, skill, attitude and beliefs to an immature or less experienced person. Is also a systematic way of impacting knowledge on to the people. 4. ENVIRONMENT: These are what we interact within our surroundings likes highlands, lakes, rivers and vegetations e.t.c. 5. LEARNING: Advanced knowledge gained by careful study. Is also a permanent changes in behavior due to past experiences. 6. FACILITATING: Make learning easy without any difficulty 7. ABSTRACT: These are what we cannot see in our surroundings 8. IMPACT: The important or the value one devices from doing something 9. STIMULATING: The art of reasoning quickly and thought and feeling CHAPTER TWO 2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW The art of teaching and learning involves the interaction of both the human and materials resources in a classroom setting. Since human beings are social animals and they cannot live in isolation, they have to socialize and interact among themselves and with environment. This brings us to the question† What is Social Studies†? Social Studies can be defined as study that equips learners with tools such as attitudes, values, skills necessary in solving personal and community related problems. Information and knowledge gathered from reading books, journals, research works may reveal the area which have not been adequately researched into to us. Furthermore, reviews of literature sometimes provoke the urge to carry out a research based on what we read in the books or journal. Teaching and learning materials can be defined as any device piece of equipment, graphic representation, sound reproduction or illustration that helps the pupils to learn. Generally, instructional materi als are used to reinforce and to enrich the mastery of the subject matter. The roles of instructional materials have been of great importance to teaching in primary schools. According to Awosolu et al (1997), quoting Alani et al (1995) he said that since most pupils in primary schools are still very young, their intellectual abilities may not allow abstract presentation in facts without having to complement the content with concrete materials. It is in this regard that instructional materials are perceived as â€Å"aids to learning rather than aid to teaching†. Lawton and Dufour and Dahunsi (1979) classify social studies instructional materials in the following: 1. PICTORIAL MATERIALS: These include globes, maps, posters, flip and well charts diagrams. 2. PRINTED MATERIALS: These include textbooks, reference books, supplementary books, work books, journals, newspapers and magazines. 3. BOARDS LIKE: Chalkboard, Flannel or felt boards 4. MECHANICAL AIDS: These are audio-visual equipment and materials. Having known the various instructional materials, they serve as information carriers which are designed specifically to fulfill objectives in a teaching learning situation. In fact, learning resources in social studies are multi various and limitless. Social studies by its nature and content deals with the realities of men living in his complex environment. Hence, anything has to do with man’s behavior and interaction as a social behavior qualifies as an instructional materials in social studies. It is therefore possible to employ as many instructional materials as possible when teaching any topic in social studies because they help to stimulate pupils’ interest and reduce the numbers of verbal responses. A lot has been written on the impact of instructional materials in teaching and learning of social studies. Agun (1988) asserts that many curriculum innovations like inquiry or problem solving method of instruction or learning how to learn may not be meaningfully and effectively implemented without the use of a wide variety of learning resource. Generally, instructional materials are used to reinforce and enrich the mastery of the subject matter. As a matter of fact, Durojaiye (1978) declared that there is a large number of failure due to the fact that teacher are not doing their work as conscientiously as they should. The critics feel that schools no longer offer true learning and creativity to their pupils. Supporting the vies of these critics. Popham (1971) feels that social studies teachers and curriculum designers in the schools do not make any significant impact on pupils due to the lack of the use of instructional materials. According to Adusual (1982), instructional materials size could affect teacher’s effectiveness because, the smaller the shape the greater the degree of contact, and more effective the teaching and learning interaction. Assuming that there were adequate number of teaching aids it can be give to each of the pupils, therefore, the teaching of social studies without making use of instructional materials is not helping his pupils to learn. 2.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS It is pertinent for teachers to become aware of the benefits that accrue from the utilization of instructional materials in order to intensity their efforts at achieving effective result in their teaching activities. Weaver and Bollinger (1949) identified the following advantages: 1. They attract and hold intention: A verbal explanation become more effective in attracting and creating interest when supplemented by a visual aid. 2. Instructional materials help retention of information and visual images. The major part of the things people heard are forgotten in a relatively short time and it becomes difficult to recall accurately what is heard. On the other hand, the things they see make a more lasting impression and they experience considerably less difficulty in calling the object or process with increased accuracy. 3. They help informing correct images: People often interpret information in term of their own background of experiences. Consequently, it is possible and quite probable for a group of learners to form entirely different ideas about the same things as a result of verbal description. The use of instructional materials helps to eliminate this inconsistency. 4. They assist in understanding proper relationships of components parts. 5. More of the benefits, teachers can reap when instructional materials are used in the teaching process: According to Ogunmilade (1984) the ability it provides in the share of expertise, helping knowledge to reach a lot of people. Simultaneously preservation of records and documents. Bringing before us what otherwise could have looked imaginary or far-fetched; enriching learning and allowing students to learn at their own rate. Furthermore, using of instructional materials makes teaching more effective and facilitates also to master the topic taught to the learner. Finally, using of instructional materials make learning easier and pleasurable at the same time concretize the learning process in the learners. 2.3. PROBLEMS FACING THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SCHOOLS In spite of the numerous benefits accruing from the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning situation its application in our schools has been discouraging because of the following process: 1. Lack of Direction: This is characterized by lip service, paid to use to educational technology in high quarter. Apart from the meager budgetary provisions often made by governments for instructional materials, when it comes to implementation, the funds are hardly released. 2. Resistance to change on the part of the teachers. 3. Lack of readiness of teaching staff to use audio-visual techniques and charge their methods and tools within the classroom. 4. Lack of insfrastructures and facilities that might make the use of instructional aid more meaningful such as lecture halls, audio-visual, libraries, studios, independent study spaces, audio-visual resource centre e.t.c. 5. Inadequate personnel or specialist to train users of instructional materials in schools. 6. Fear of failure in their use 7. Fear that new technology would replace teachers. 8. Inadequate instructional materials: Since the inception of social studies programme, teachers have consistently complained about the problems of quality and quantity of instructional materials. The problem is traceable to lack of good textbooks, cost of textbooks, commercialization of materials, non-functional libraries and resources centres, gap between publication and dissemination of instructional materials, lack of quality control of textual materials and so on. In most cases, teachers rely on outdated and stereotyped textbooks which hardly reflect the needs of pupils. 9. Lack of Fund: This is one of the big problems confronting teachers in general, and social studies teacher in particular. The problem here is lack of motivation and incessant agitation by teachers for improved condition of service. Thus, primary school teachers including social studies teachers have lost interest in teaching even though they are still called teachers. Those who have the slightest opportunity leave the classroom for greener pastures. The incessant replacement that follows such frequent resignations leads to lack of continuity in social studies classrooms. The pupils are usually the worse hit by this. Furthermore, funds are not available for the provision of instructional materials, thereby leaving teachers to either improvise or teach without any in majority of the cases. CHAPTER THREE 3.0.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter is concerned with the techniques used by the researcher in the collection of data for investigation. It covers explanation on the choice and description of instrument employed for the collection of data. Also included are the sampling techniques, method of administration of the questionnaire and the data analysis method. 3.1.RESEARCH INSTRUMENT The research instrument used for this study is the questionnaire. The choice of the questionnaire is because of its advantage of allowing respondents to answer questions without any outside influence such as facial appearance that may influence respondents as in the interview method. The questionnaire used is in two parts. The first part deals with the personal data of the respondents while the second part contains ten statements which attempt to find out the impact of the use of instructional materials have in teaching social studies. 3.2.SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE The sample of this study consists of 60 primary school teachers. The sample was chosen from five primary schools in Ibeju-Lekki Local Government Area of Lagos State. The sampling technique used in selecting the sample for the study was the systematic random sampling. The sampling technique removes bias in the selection of the elements, and it is convenient and more accurate than the random sampling. 4.3. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 1. Most social studies teachers aware of the need for instructional materials in teaching of social studies. 2. Most primary schools have inadequate instructional materials in the teaching of social studies 3. Majority of the social studies teacher do not make use of instructional materials during their lesson 4. Most of the social studies teachers agree that the chalkboard is one of the instructional materials which aid effective teaching of social studies. 5. Most of the teachers take their pupils on field trips majority of social studies teachers use community resources like red objects and resources persons because they promote learning in social studies. Most social studies teachers do not have overhead projectors, audio-visual equipment which can promote learning in social studies. 6. Almost all the teachers of social studies said that inadequate equipment is one of the problems which they face. 7. Most social studies teachers agree that effective use of instructional materials contribute positively to learning process. 4.4. DISCUSSION From the research study most primary school teachers are aware of instructional materials for the teaching of social studies. This observation is consistent with the assertion of Nduanya (1986) that teachings are more effective when teachers locate and use appropriate resources. Furthermore, it is observed that most primary schools lack instructional materials be it concrete or abstract to teach social studies. This shows that most primary schools in Ibeju-Lekki Local Government either lack or have inadequate instructional materials for the teaching of social studies. From the research study, it can be observed that majority of social studies teachers do not make use of instructional materials during social studies lessons. This is as a result of inadequate instructional materials which is due to lack of fund to provide instructional materials. This findings agrees with Agun (1988) who asserts that many curriculum innovations like inquiring or problem solving method of instructional or learning how to learn may not be meaningful and effectively implemented without the use of a wide variety of learning research. In fact, it can be deduced from the research study that most social studies teachers make use of chalkboard as an instructional material which is most important aids to effective teaching. This implies that the chalkboard is one of the instructional materials that is the most available instructional materials in every school. There is no school which will have inadequate instructional materials and will not have a chalkboard. Indeed, the chalkboard as one of the instructional materials is commonly used by the teachers. This findings on the use of chalkboard agrees with Ajimoko (1973); Dahunsi (1979), Akanbi (1982) and Osofisan (1982) they said apart from the chalkboard, the textbook was the next most frequently used of the instructional materials. Consequently, from the findings it can be observed that majority of social studies teacher take their pupils out on field trips. Pupils are taking out on excursion to relate their experience with the theory they have been taught in the classroom. When pupils are taking out on field trips they learn more about their surroundings as the nature of social studies and learning becomes more permanent in them. From the findings it shows that majority of social studies teachers makes use of resources centres. This indicates that pupils need to be taken out of the classroom to appreciate the fact that learning does not end within the premises of the classroom. When pupils go out, they need to be trained to observe event and learn without the teacher being around them. This finding agrees with Preston and Herman (1981). These resource centres become social studies laboratory in which pupils becomes young social scientists. From the research study, it can be deducted that most social studies teachers do not make use of audio-visual materials because they don’t have them. This finding agrees with Akibote (1983) on the very limited uses of electronic materials in school within Ondo Local Government Area. This is as a result of the teacher’s inabilities to manipulate any of the equipment since they do not have teacher training. Another related problem may be due to lack of electricity because majority of the schools do not have electricity. Another finding of the study deduced that in teaching of social studies, inadequate equipment is one of the problems faced by social studies teachers. This implies that some social studies lessons are done in abstract. So, effective learning cannot be facilitated. This negative effect may be as a result of lack of funds to provide adequate instructional materials in schools and teachers are not ready to improve because of their salaries are very inadequate. The results also shown that most of the social studies teachers agrees that most of the social studies teachers agrees that the effective use of instructional materials combine positively to learning process. The effect is that when instructional materials are effectively used, they facilitate learning and stimulate pupil’s interest. They also make their lessons more interesting and relief the pupils from the burden of tiredness while learning. CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES The main objective of this study is to examine the impact of instructional materials in the teaching of social studies in primary schools. In this chapter, the summary of the major findings will be highlighted. The discussion will also include suggestions for policy making and areas where future research on the topic may be directed. 5.1. SUMMARY One of the major findings of this research is that most social studies teachers agreed on the importance of teaching the subject with instructional materials. Another outcome of this project is that there are inadequate instructional materials for teaching social studies in primary schools. So many instances, teaching is done without instructional materials. It was also revealed from the research that the chalkboard that is always available in schools is one of the instructional materials which aids the effective teaching of social studies. This study also reveals that although most primary schools do not have audio-visual aids, social studies teachers compensate for this by making use of real objects, resource persons and by taking their pupils on field trips. Finally, from this research, it was revealed that the use of instructional materials in teaching social studies contribute positively to the learning of the subject 5.2. SUGGESTIONS Although this study has not claimed to be complete, some suggestions based on its findings could be made on how to improve the teaching of social studies in primary schools through the effective use of instructional materials. In the first place, because of the importance of instructional materials in the teaching and learning of social studies in primary schools, the various ministries of education and school boards in the country should ensure that adequate instructional materials are supplied to primary schools. Secondly, the government should ensure that there is regular supply of electricity and schools in the villages that lack electricity should be provided with generators. This will enable the schools to make use of audio-visual aids such as television, projector and VCD. Thirdly, regular workshops and seminars should be organized by the various school boards for primary school teachers on how to make simple instructional materials and on the use of the various instructional materials. Finally, inspectors of education should constantly visit schools to ensure that the instructional materials available are judiciously used by teachers for teaching. 5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES Like with most researches, this study cannot claim to have exhausted all that is to be said on the use of instructional materials in teaching social studies in primary schools. Instead, this survey should be regarded as a guide for further research. Therefore, as regards the future, this researcher suggests some specific projects. First of all, a further investigation should be carried out to find out how use of instructional materials or lack of this affects pupils’ academic performance in social studies. In addition, social studies teacher should consider the instructional materials when teaching social studies at the same time there is need for education technology practitioners to write texts more relevant to Nigeria situation and needs such texts should contain model and samples of instructional materials and the procedure for making them by individual teachers. Furthermore, there should be a study on the suitability or otherwise of the available instructional materials that are being used in teaching social studies in primary schools. DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ADENIRAN OGUNSANYA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, EPE CAMPUS, EPE. RESEARCH PROJECT 2013 QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE IMPACT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS ON THE TEACHING OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN IBEJU-LEKKI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF LAGOS STATE REFERENCES Alani, R.A; Oduyemi, O.G and Agagu A.A. (1995): Teaching Aids; Reading in Subject Methodology; Ijebu-Ode, Olaf Association, Page 29-34. Awosolu, E.O. and Fasasi A.K.(1996): â€Å"Teacher’s use of Instructional materials in Primary Social Studies in Epe Metropolis† The Beagle, Journal of Primary Education,, Vol. 1 and 2, page 71-77. Awosolu, E.O. and Fasasi A.K. (1996) â€Å"Teacher’s use of Instructional Materials in Primary Social Studies in Epe Metropolis† quoting Agun 1988, Nduanya 1986, Imogie 1988, Alani et al 1995, Dufour and Dahunsi 1979, Ajimoko 1973, Preston and Herman 1981, Akibote 1983, Akanbi 1982, and Osofisan 1982 in the Beagle, Journal of Primary Education, Vol 1 and 2, page 71 – 77. Olowoye, B. (1996): Principle and Method of Teachings. Ibadan, Afolabi Press Limited Page 107 – 120 Osunkalu, A.S. (1973): Instructional Media quoting Adesina 1982, Durojaiye 1978 Welberg 1970, Nwaogu 1980 and Pophas 1971 in a Journal of Teachers Guide Vol. 2 page 21 – 26. View as multi-pages